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ROME. 



By GEORGE W. \yARD, Ph.D., 

Professor of Ristory and Politics, 

WESTERN MARYLAND COLLEGE. 



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Copyright, 1897, 

BY 
WM. J. C. DULANY Co. 



Selected Accessible Sources. 



1. LivY. — Born B. C. 69 at Padua; lived at Rome; patronized by Augustus; died 17 
A.D. Of tlie one hundred and forty-two books of Livy's History of Rome from the 
foundation of the city to the battle in Teutoburg Forest, 9 A.D., we have only thirty- 
five complete, the remainder, except two, in epitomes. Written for entertainment. 
Perfect style. 

2. PoLYBius. — Greek; born B. C. 204; taken to Rome among the one thousand 
hostages after the battle of Pydna, patronized by Scipio with whom he was present 
at the destruction of Carthage, Corinth, and Numantia (?); died B. C. 122. Of the 
forty books of Polybius's History [Pragmeteia] we have only five complete. Nearly 
contemporaneous source for the Second Punic War — followed here by Livy. History 
of Rome's world conquest. Written for instruction. Poor style. 

3. DioNYSius of Halicarnassus. — Came to Rome B. C. 29, where he remained till 
his death B. C. 7. Of the twenty-two books of Dionysius, we possess eleven — these 
come down only to B. C. 441 — just after the Twelve Tables. Minute early history to 
teach his people the greatness of Rome. Full of speeches — rhetoric rather than 
history. 

4. Cicero. — One of the ablest men produced by Rome. A very voluminous writer. 
Besides their historical value his orations are among the best specimens of oratory in 
existence. No man of his age did more to preserve the liberties of Rome. Read 
especially the four orations against Cataline. 

5. C^sAR. — History of the first seven years of the Gallic Wars in seven books, 
and of the Civil War in three books. The eighth book of the Gallic Wars and the 
last three books of the Civil War are by another hand — Hirtius (?) Contemporary 
source. 

6. Plutarch. — Born at Chaeronea in Boeotia shortly before 50 A. D. (?); was a 
student of philosophy when Nero made his tour of Greece in 66 A. D. Forty-six 
Parallel Lives — a Greek, then a Roman, then a comparison. 

7. Tacitus. — Born shortly before 61 A. D ; patronized by the Flavian emperors 
and by Nerva and Trajan; died soon after 117 A. D. Voluminous writer. Of Tacitus's 
historical works the Agricola [Life of his father-in-law] and the Germania (description 
of Germany and the Germans) have come down to us complete. Of the history we 
have only four books complete covering only one year [Galba, Otho, and Vitellius], 
and a fragment of the fifth book to the siege of Jerusalem. Of the sixteen books of 
the Annales, the fifth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, and parts of the eleventh and 
sixteenth books are lost. Contemporary source except the Annales which deal with 
the generation just preceding his own. 

8. Suetonius. — Contemporary with Tacitus. Lives of the Twelve Caesars [Julius 
Caesar to Domitian, 96 A. D.] 

9. Ammianus Maecellinus. — Greek; native of Antioch; early joined the Imperial 
Body-guards and served under Julian (361-363 A. D.) Of the thirty-one books of his 
History of Rome from Nerva 96 A. D. to Valens, 378 A. D., the first thirteen are lost. 
The part extant is a contemporaneous source. 



ROME. 

PART i.—The Monarchy. 



LECTURE 1. QEOQRAPHY, RELIGION, ETHNOGRAPHY. 

1. Situation, — With a good map in hand notice that the Italian peninsula lies 
northwest of Greece. To the South lies Sicily, separated from the mainland by the 
Strait of Messina [Scylla and Charyhdis]. The Adriatic sea lies east, while the shores 
south and west are washed by the Mediterranean. 

1. TopoGEAPHY. — In shape the peninsula has been compared to a boot, the heel 
directed toward Greece, the toe toward Sicily. In the north, between the Alps and the 
northern spurs of the Apennines lies the valley of the Po. Stretching thence south- 
easterly, through the entire length of the Peninsula, are the Apennines, a backbone of 
mountain nowhere more than two thousand feet high. On each side, a narrow plain 
traversed by a few small streams, lies between the base of the mountains and the shore. 
The Tiber falls into the western sea opposite Southern Corsica. 

3. Draw from memory an outline map of Italy, and locate (1) Po; (2) Arno; (3) 
Tiber; (4) Eubicon; (5) Metaurus; (6) Vulturnus; (7)Aufldus; (8) Rome; (9) Capua; (10) 
Cannae; (11) Tarentum; (12) Beneventum; (13) Ostia; (14) Veil; (15) Lake Trasimenus; 
(16) Via Appia; (17) Via Flaminia. 

4. Religion. — In Rome, as in Greece, there was little distinction between church and 
state. The king was also high priest, conducting the national ceremonies, performing 
the national sacrifices. No political act of importance could be undertaken without 
first consulting the auspices. 

5. Gods. — (1) Jupiter, "father of gods and men;" (2) Mars, war, legendary father 
of the Populus Itomanus; (3) Saturn, agriculture; (4) Neptune, the sea; (5) Hercules, 
gain; (6) Mercury, traflBc. lime's Early Rome., VI. 

6. Goddesses. — (1) Juno, wife of Jupiter; (2) Venus, love; (3) Minerva, wisdom; 
(4) Vesta, national hearth; (5) Ceres, agriculture; (6) Ops, harvest and wealth. 

7. SACfiED Colleges. — (1) Pontiffs, highest religious power; head, pontifex maxi- 
mus; decided days for public business, thus becoming a tool in the hands of the govern- 
ment. [4, then 9, then 16]. (2) Augurs, [4, 9, 16] consulted will of gods by omens; 
(3) Heralds, [20] treaties, war, ambassadors; (4) Keepers of the Sibylline Books [Duum- 
viri Sacrorum] of Etruscan origin; Sibyl offered to sell books, first nine, then six, then 
three, which were bought. 

8. Ethnography. — Indo-European — Aryan. The first historical name in Italy is 
that of the "Siculi," a people who have left themselves a monument in the name 
"Sicily." A tribe apparently contemporaneous with them was the Ligures. These 
were overthrown by the Pelasgi and the Aborigines. Of both these peoples some 
remains may still be traced. Later still, we find the Etruscans north, the Latins and 
Sabines south of the Tiber. The Latins and the Sabines were separated by the Anio. 



8 ROME — THE MONARCHY. 

LECTURE II. THE PRIHITIVE ROHAN STATE. 

1. Character of the Legends. — The first three-and-a-half centuries of Roman his- 
tory may be regarded as traditional. "What little we do know is mainly derived from 
inference." But the legends are interesting and contain, no doubt, a fairly accurate 
picture of Roman life and institutions in the earliest times. Read the legends them- 
selves; no digest can convey any fair idea of their interest or their importance as an 
institutional study. 

2. Tradition points to an aboriginal race in Itlay, reinforced after the Trojan war 
by wanderers from Troy [JEneas] and immigrants from G-reece [Evander]. Another 
legend makes Romulus the founder of the city, which afterwards took its name from 
him. The Sabines claimed to be a colony from Sparta. Plutarch. Ihne's Early 
Borne, Ch. 11. 

3. Story of Romulus [and Remus]. — Descended from ^neas, son of Mars, and a 
Vestal, exposed by their uncle, suckled by a wolf, rescued by Faustulus, identified in 
a ciuarrel [about cattle?], and their usurping uncle overthrown. They then move 
across the Tiber to the Palatine [spot where they were washed ashore ?], take the aus- 
pices, decide to build on the site chosen by Romulus; Remus killed in a quarrel, and 
the city called from the shape of the Palatine, "Roma Quadrata," Square Rome. 

4. The Reign of Romulus — Romulus opened his city to robbers and all the rough 
characters of surrounding tribes [Asylum]. Thus the population increased apace; but 
there were no women. To remedy this a feast was arranged to which the neighboring 
Sabines were invited. At a signal, the Romans rush upon the Sabine daughters, each 
securing for himself a wife. The Sabine fathers make war; in the midst of a doubtful 
battle the captured daughters go out and plead for peace, as, in any case, it must be 
their husbands or their fathers who are defeated. Peace arranged. [Rape of the 
Sabine Women. Tarpeia]. 

5. Constitution op Primitive Rome. — (1) The people were divided into three 
tribes, Ramnes [Romans], Titles (tish-i-es) [Sabines], and Luceres [mixed]. (2) The gov- 
ernment was carried on through a Senate and Comitia Curiata, afterwards Centuriata. 
Ihne's Early Rome, V. (3) The classes in the state were Patricians, Clients, Slaves 
and Plebians. 

6. The King was general in war, judge in peace, and always high -priest of the 
nation. Ihne's Early Rome, VI F. 

7. The Senate was not a law-making, but merely an influential advisory body. In 
theory it consisted of the "fathers" [patres] in Rome. The head of each clan [family] 
was, upon appointment of the king, a member of the Senate. Ihne's Early Rome, 
Ch. VIII. 

8. The Comitia Curiata was an assembly of the members of the curiae, each curia 
having one vote on such matters as the king chose to lay before them. The duties of 
this body gradually passed to the Centuriata. 

LECTURE III. NUMA, TULLUS H0STILIU5, AND ANCUS HARCIUS. 

1. Election of Numa. — Upon the apotheosis of Romulus there was no one to 
succeed him. The senators agreed to perform the office of king by turns, each serving 
only one day and night [Interregnum]. The restless, pugnacious Romans soon tired of 
this oligarchical rule and insisted upon having a king. At last it was agreed by the 
Romans and Sabines [Lect. II., 3] that a king should be chosen out of one tribe by the 
people of the other tribe. The Romans preferred the right of choice to that of 
furnishing a king, and Numa was chosen from the Sabine City of Cures. 



10 ROME THE MONARCHY. 

2. Notification. — Nuina lived iii quiet retirement, and, after the death of his wife 
habitually sought solitude and the company of a deity, from whom he received wisdom 
Thus he had reached his fortieth year when ambassadors came from Rome to make him 
king. Numa declined the hoTior, but was afterwards persuaded by his father to accept. 

3. Coronation. — Numa was a strikingly handsome, athletic figure, which greatly 
delighted the Romans. Met by Senate and people they proceeded to the capitol. The 
chief of Augurs covered Numa's head, turned his face to the south, and with his right 
hand ou Numa's head waited for some sign from the gods. Soon '* the auspicious birds 
appeared and passed by on the right hand. Then Numa took the royal robe and went 
down from the mount to the people, who received him with loud acclammations as the 
most pious of men and most beloved of the gods." 

4. Numa's Reign. — Numa was a lawgiver, the second founder of the Roman State- 
He devoted himself to the arts of peace and to religion. He discharged the guard of 
soldiers which had protected Romulus, reorganized the priesthood, founded the College 
of Pontiffs [Lect. I., 7], established the order of Vestal Virgins and the sacred fire. 
[See Plutarch's Numa, p. 634], and the College of Heralds [Lect. I., 7]. Numa blotted 
out the jealousy between Romans and Sabines by classifying the people by trades : 
" Musicians, goldsmiths, masons, dyers, shoemakers, tanners, braziers, and potters;" 
and ''collected the other artificers also into companies, who had their respective halls, 
courts, and religious ceremonies peculiar to each society." He repealed the law 
permitting parents to sell their children, reformed the calendar, and died in a good old 
age, leaving the Romans peaceful and prosperous. Plutarch's Numa. 

5. TuLLus HosTiLius. — Aped Romulus, conquered Alba — Horatii and Curiatii. [See 
Livy i., 22-26]. Defeated Fidenae and Veii, destroyed Alba and tore asunder with 
chariots the body of the Alban king. Later became remorseful, but upon approaching 
Jupiter the offended god struck him dead with lightning. 

6. Angus Marcius. — Grandson of Numa and less warlike than Hostilius. He 
conquered the Latins and'established a colony of them on the Aventine. These were 
the originals plebs. Founded Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber, fortified the Janiculum 
and connected it with Rome by a bridge. 

LECTURE IV. TARQUINIUS PRISCUS, SERVIUS, AND TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS. 

1. The Historical Kings. — It is usually believed that while the stories of the 
first four kings are entirely fabulous, those of the last contain much that is historical. 
But there is much of fable mixed with whatever truth there may be in the accounts 
of even the last three. It may perhaps be confidently affirmed that Rome, like most 
primitive states, was founded a kingdom. But not even the course of her history naay 
be certainly made out till the kingdom is changed into a republic. 

2. The Etruscan Line. — Tarquinius Priscus was the son of Demaratus, a noble 
of Corinth, who, when tyranny was established there fled to Etruria. Tarquin married 
an influential princess of Etruria, but, being an alien, was kept out of power and was 
finally persuaded by his wife to go to Rome. Here he gained rapidly in popularity with 
both people and senate. Upon the death of Ancus Marcius, Tarquin was unanimously 
elected to the throne. Thus were the Etruscan princess established at Rome. 

3.' Tarquin's Reign — The Etruscans proved to be powerful rulers. Under Tarquin 
Rome sprang forward almost as if by magic. The Latins and Etruscans were defeated 
and the town of Collatia was taken from the Sabines. The lower, swampy part of the 
city was drained — Cloaca Maxima — the Circus Maximus laid out and the Roman 
Games instituted; the Forum was laid out and adorned, while a great temple to 
Jupiter was built on the Capitoline, and a wall around the city begun. Tarquin 
added the third tribe — Luceres — to the state, and the third hundred to the senate. 



12 ROME — THE REPUBLrC. 

Then he doubled the number of members in each -tribe. After a brilliant reign of 
thirty-eiglit years he was assassinated by sons of Ancus Marcius. His successor, 
Servius Tullius, was reputed to have been born a slave. 

4. Servius Tullius. — Servius had been the favorite of queen Tanaquil, and upon 
the murder of Tarquin [which she at first concealed] Servius was produced as king 
without consent of the popular assemblies. Servius, though irregularly chosen king, 
did more than almost any other king to shape the future of Rome, He was a great 
builder. During his reign, the city for the first time included all the seven hills, and 
was entirely enclosed by a wall. This was but little changed in five hundred years. 
He re-organized the state on a military basis, and from that time for almost a thousand 
years the Roman army was one of the main factors in the complicated movement of 
world history. He distributed conquered lands among the poor. Nobles complain. 
Servius assassinated. 

5. The Servian Constitution. — Except the senate, Servius changed the Constitu- 
tion from the basis of birth to that of wealth. This important change was effected 
through the army, and was not complete till long after the death of its author. What 
Servius actually did was thoroughly to reorganize the army. He m.ade it to consist of 
one hundred and seventy-five centuries of foot, and eighteen centuries of horse. The 
levies and the voting were according to wealth. [Plebeians]. Voting took place in 
the Centuriata, where questions of war and foreign policy were decided — next to the 
senate the most powerful body in the State. [Thirty Plebeian tribes created.] 

6. Taequinius Superbus. — The last of the Roman kings came to the throne 
through the influence of his wife, Tullia. She effected her purpose by the murder of 
her first husband, her sister, and finally of her father, the king over whose mangled 
body she drove her chariot in the street hence named Sceleratus. On the throne Tar- 
quin proved to be as great as he was wicked. Under him Rome first became the 
acknowledged leader among a number of neighboring nations. [He carried the Roman 
arms further than any predecessor had done, besides completing the great works begun 
by Servius]. Became oppressive; compelled to flee on account of his son's outrage to 
Lucretia. Plutarch's Publicola. 

7. Criticism of the Legends. — The stories told by Livy, Plutarch and others, of 
the foundling of Rome and the reign of the first four kings, it must be remembered 
are very questionable authorities if, indeed, they are not wholly creations of the 
imagination. Rome, with all its records, (?) was burned B. C., 390, by the Gauls. 
With the exception of a few laws, a few family histories, and the annals of Fabius 
Pictor, upon which Livy appears to have relied to a great extent, we possess little of 
the history of Rome that was not written from two hundred to five hundred years after 
the events narrated. 



PART 11— The Republic, b. c. 510-31. 



Section I.— ROME ON HER SEVEN HILLS (510-343). 

LECTURE V. EARLY DAYS OF THE REPUBLIC. 

1. Tarquin Attemps to Regain the Throne. — Driven from Rome by force, Tarquin 
soon collected an army and returned to fight for his throne. In the battle which 
followed neither party won a decisive victory, but the king's son killed Brutus, the 
defilement of whose wife, Lucretia, had led to the overthrow of Tarquin. The Roman 
women mourned for Brutus a whole year. 



14 ROME — THE REPUBLIC* 

2. Lars Porsena. — Tarquin now turned to his kindred, the Etrurians. Porsena 
was their most powerful king. Listening to Tarquin's appeal, he led a force toward 
Rome. The Senate was seized with terror, and granted great privileges to the people in 
order to unite them against the enemy. Across the Sublician bridge the Romans 
marched to the Janiculum, and there awaited the enemy. 

3. HoRATius AT THE BRIDGE. — Porsena and his Tuscans, by a sudden assault, drove 
the Romans in confusion from their position. The bridge now offered to the Romans 
their only means of escape, to Porsena, the only passage into Rome. In the midst of 
the rout Horatius Codes called in vain upon the Romans to make a stand, and, finally, 
with only two companions, himself took position at the bridge. Porsena was checked 
till the Romans could cross and destroy the bridge, after the two companions had 
crossed on a fragment. Then Horatius, with a prayer to "Father Tiberinus," threw 
himself in full armor into the river, and amidst a shower of missiles swam safe to the 
Roman side — "an act which is likely to obtain more fame than credit with posterity." 
[Livy. L, 9^ 10]. 

4. Mucins ScAEVOLA. — Porsena now sent for boats to guard the river, and effected a 
siege of Rome. The Romans were soon distressed and attempted to relieve the city by 
an ambush. Only a few of Porsena's men were taken, however, and the siege continued. 
Then three hundred Roman youths made a plot to assassinate Porsena. Tlie lot fell 
first upon Mucins. Having gone in disguise to Porsena's camp, he was unable to 
distinguish the king from his secretary, who sat in similar dress beside him. The 
blow fell upon the secretary, and Mucius was captured. Porsena had fires built around 
and then ordered Mucius to tell about the plot. Instead of doing so, Mucins thrust his 
right hand into the fire, where it was soon burned off before the king's eyes. The 
king was so struck with his bravery that he dismissed Mucius with honor — afterwards 
called Scaevola, the " left-handed." 

5. The Consuls. — Porsena now retired, and the Romans proceeded to choose for 
their ruler, not a king — they had vowed never again to allow a king in Rome — but two 
consuls who were jointly to share most of the king's duties. [Copied from the Spar- 
tans ? See "The Eastern Civilizations and Greece," Lect. IX., 2]. This was, perhaps, 
the only difference between the kingdom and the republic, except that the consuls were 
chosen by both patricians and plebeians in the Centuriata ; the kings had been chosen 
by the patricians alone in the Curiata. The defect was that one could veto the act of 
l^he other. The revolution rather opened, the way for great changes than made them 

6. The Dictator, B. C, 501. — This was an extraordinary and occasional officer who 
might be, under urgent necessity — usually war — appointed by decree of the Senate 
through the consul, for six months, at the end of which time he must retire to private 
life — [Cf. the "Tyrant" in Greek politics, "'The Eastern Civilizations and Greece," 
Lect. X-L, 4-5]. The Dictator stood above law. Absolutely supreme, he could give 
unity and effectiveness to military operations such as could be secured in no other 
way. Almost immediately upon the establishment of the Republic a Dictator was 
appointed to make the executive power respected by all parties. Story of the dictator- 
ship of Cincinnatus ? 

LECTURE VI. PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS. 

1. Battle of Lake Regillus. — The Latins, being about to make war on Rome, 
were joined by the Tarquins. The hostile forces met at Lake Regillus, where Tarqui- 
nius Superbus, himself now an old man, fought valiantly against Rome. This proved 
to be the bloodiest battle the Romans had yet fought. Spite against the Tarquins led 
to bloody personal encounters, and the battle — finally won by the Romans in an impet- 
uous charge upon the enemies' camp — became the proverb of severity for future ages. 
[Livy, II., 19-20.] 



16 ROME— THE EBPUBLIC. 

2. First Secession of the Plebs. B. C. 494. — For several years after the estab- 
lishment of the Republic, Rome was continually at war with the neighboring tribes. 
The burden of these wars was borne by the Plebeians, while all the privileges gained 
were enjoyed by the Patricians. The Plebeians complained loudly, but without obtain- 
ing any important concessions from the proud Patricians. In 494, returned from 
a successful war against the Volsci, the Plebeians refused to lay down their arms, but 
seceded in a body to the Mons Sacer, across the Anio, and began to form a new State. 
By a fable [Livy, II., 82] Menenius Agrippa was able to persuade the Plebeians to return, 
on condition that they should have two magistrates of their own order — "tribunes of 
the people." 

3. The Patricians were the Populus Romanus, the only class that had any political 
privileges. They did not allow intermarriages with foreigners. They were "the 
fathers" in Rome, and the head of each clan had a right to a seat in the senate. They 
were regarded as the descendants of the earliest tribes in Rome. 

4. The Plebeians. — This class can not be so confidently defined. It is certain 
that the Plebs had no political rights, but were free to acquire property and engage in 
trade. They were probably those who had come to Rome after the three original 
tribes had been established, descendants of the conquered tribes around Rome, and 
those who had come to Rome to trade. [And see Lect. II., 4.] 

5. Tribunes. — Upon the return of the Pleba from the Mons Sacer they were 
allowed to elect from among their own order two officers called tribunes. The number 
was soon increased to five and then to ten. The tribunes could stop any unjust action 
against a Plebeian; could not leave the city further than a mile, must be easily accessible 
night and day. They, could defend the Plebs but could not initiate any movement in 
their favor. [Ihne's Early Rome, XIII.] 

6. Clients. — The clients formed a numerous class in the later days of the Republic. 
Any citizen of Rome became a client by attaching himself personally to some power- 
ful patron who thus became his protector. It came to be a very close and honorable 
relation not wholly dependent on blood. But in the earliest days the clients were 
perhaps always Plebs. 

7. Slaves. — The slave class was not numerous in Rome till her world-wide con- 
quests brought them in hosts to Italy. They were greatly abused owing to the ease 
with which they were obtained. Several times they rose in revolt threatening the 
very existence of the State. [Lect. XIX., 2.] The cultivation of the large farms 
[Latifundia] of Italy by slave labor ruined the free, small farmers, and became one 
important cause of the downfall of Rome. 

LECTURE VII. ROME UNDER THE PATRICIANS. 

1. The Senate of the Republic. — The Senate was ever the soul of the Republic. 
The usual phrase was "Senatus populusque Romanus" — the Senate standing even 
before the people. "The Senate had neither executive, legislative nor judicial power. 
It was merely a consultative body, free to give advice to the magistrates, when asked 
for it, but unable either to give advice unasked or to enforce its acceptance." Its 
influence consisted in this, that it really represented the intelligence of the people, and 
generally gave a correct expression of the national will. Vacancies were filled by the 
consuls — later by the Censors — from ex-magistrates, if there were any, otherwise from 
the most influential patricians. [Ihne's Early Rome, XI ] 

2. Popular Assemblies. — The oldest popular assembly was the Coniitia Curiata, 
composed entirely of Patricians. From the time of Servius the Comitia Centuriata — 
hundred-assembly of both Patricians and Plebeians voting according to wealth — 
became more and more influential. The Comitia Tributa was the popular assembly of 



18 ROME — THE REPUBLIC. 

the Plebs. Its acts only after long years became binding upon any but Pl^ebs. [Ihne's 
Early Rome, XII.] 

3. CoRiOLANus. — In a famine wliicli happened soon after the First Secession of the 
Plebs, corn was bought for distribution among the people. Later, Gelon sent corn as 
a present. Coriolanus advised to give the Plebs none till they would give up 
their tribunes. Hearing this, the Plebs charged him with breaking the peace between 
the classes, and he fled to the Volscians. Having led a Volscian army within five 
miles of Rome, he was at last induced to retire, only when his mother, wife and chil- 
dren, at the head of a procession of Roman matrons, begged the safety of Rome. 
"Thou hast saved Rome, but lost thy son." Livy II., 33-40; Ihne's Early Home, XVI. 
Plutarch's Coriolanus. 

4. (;!iNCiNNATUs. — In one of their numerous wars with the ^qui, the Romans found 
themselves in such sti-aits that it was declared that no one but Cincinnatus could save 
the State. Accordingly, he was made dictator. The committee of notification found 
him plowing, bare-armed, on his small farm. After some persuasion, he first made his 
toilet, then received the robes of State, repaired to Rome, and led forth an army. 
Completely successful, he returned to Rome in triumph, and on the sixteenth day laid 
down the dictatorship, [which he could have held six months] and returned to his 
plow. ''Honorable poverty." 

5. The Tweive Tables. B. C. 451. — In order to get the customs or laws of Rome 
written down in a code, the Patricians gave up their consuls, the Plebs their tribunes, 
for one year, and a board of ten [Decemvirs] was created, composed of both Patricians 
and Plebs. These examined all the codes which they could find, especially Solon's, 
and toward the end of the year drew ofl" a code of ten tables. But the work was con- 
sidered unfinished, so they were continued in office and soon added two more tables 
Ihne, XVIII. 

6. Appius Claudius and Virginia. — Of the old Decemviral Board, only Appius 
Claudius was re- elected. He soon became haughty, and the people believed he was 
about to overthrow the Constitution and establish an oligarchy with himself 
supreme. Matters were brought to a crisis by the lust of Appius. Virginia, the 
daughter of a noble Plebeian, was, at his instigation, claimed by a client as his slave. 
In the trial the bold wickedness of Appius triumphed over justice, and the girl was 
adjudged to him. Her father, overwhelmed wilh grief, called her aside for a moment 
to the booths around the Forum, and there struck her dead at his feet. 

7. Second Secession of the Plebs. B. C. 449. — This outrage led to a second seces- 
sion, either to the Avenline, the Plebeian stronghold, or to the old place — Mons Sacer. 
The Decemvirs were obliged to resign, and consuls and tribunes were again elected. 
By this secession the Plebs appear to have gained practically equal political rights 
with the Patricians. Livy, II., 31 — III., 58. 

LECTURE VIII. CONQUEST OF THE NEIGHBORING TRIBES OF ITALY. 

1. Capture of Pidenae. — After long years of war with Fidenae [where?] the 
Romans were at last able to capture the place in a most curious battle. Having 
attacked the city, they were making good progress, when suddenly the gates were 
pushed open and there issued, nobody could tell what, bearing innumerable burning 
brands. For an instant the Romans wavered, but encouraged by the dictator, they 
sprang to the attack, Catching the torches which were thrown, and seizing others ; it 
became literally a battle of fire. The Romans were victorious and the city was 
destroyed. [Livy, IV., 31-34]. 

2. Capture of Veii by Camillus. B. C. 396. — Veil was across the Tiber twelve 
miles north of Rome. Strongly built on a hill, it had long withstood the attacks of 



20 ROME — THE REPUBLIC. 

Rome. Livy records war after war with apparently no other result than the gradual 
growth of the city in power. At last the war — for such the thirty years of raids might 
be called — was terminated by a ten years' siege. [Cf. the Trojan ^Va^]. Livy tells 
[V., 1-28] how, after everything else had failed, a mine was constructed under the 
fortress to the middle of the city. The Veientes being about to offer sacrifice, the 
priest declared that whoever should use the animal for omens would be victorious. The 
Romans in the mine broke through thereupon and carried it off to the dictator — a 
story which Livy himself does not credit. But the city was taken, the inhabitants sold 
into slavery, and the spoil, in immense quantities, taken to Rome. [Livy, V., 19-22]. 

3. The Battle of the Allia. B. C. 390. — Soon after the destruction of Veil, the 
Gauls from northern Italy invaded Rome. At the Allia, a small stream flowing into 
the Tiber about six miles from Rome, the Gauls fairly destroyed the Roman army, and 
then pushed on to Rome itself almost by the time the news of the disaster arrived. 

4. Rome in Ruins. — The city was taken, except the capitol, which alone was saved 
by the cackling of the geese sacred to Juno. [Livy, V., 47]. To the rest of the city 
the torch was applied. Rome destroyed. There had come a turning point in the course 
of history. What race was to lead the world to law and unity if not Rome? But only 
the city had been destroyed, not Rome. Soon pinched by the fa.mine themselves liad 
created the Gauls began to treat, and presently accepted from the rapidly collecting 
R,omans a heavy ransom. [" Woe -to the Vanquishigd !"] But while the gold was being 
weighed, Camillus appeared with an army, forcing Brennus and his Gauls to flee. Even 
then the Romans thought of moving their state to Veii inst^ad of rebuilding on the 
old site. Plutarch's Camillus. 

5. Marcus Manlius. — As soon as Rome recovered from the invasion by the Gauls? 
the Plebeians were again oppressed. 'The slave barracks were filled with prisoners for 
debt, Camillus himself treating them very harshly. Then Manlius, who had saved the 
capitol, took their part. He was at once accused of treason. Tried in the Campus 
Marcius, he pointed to the capitol which he had saved, and the people acquitted him. 
Then his persecutors had him tried in a secluded place and obtained sentence. He was 
thrown from the Tarpeian rock. Livy, VI., 20. 

LECTURE IX. ROMAN POLITICS. [REVIEW.] 

1. Political Parties. — It may be said that there were from the earliest times, 
two quite distinct political parties at Rome. [Livy. Dionysius.] — Patricians and 
Plebeians. [Lect. VI., 3, 4.] Intelligence, principle, and reason, the true basis of wise 
political action, had little to do with the politics of ancient Rome. In their passion, 
heredity, and the blind impulse to maintain one's own order at all hazards were the 

guiding forces. 

• 

2. The Plebeians Recognized by the State. — Romulus is said to have admitted 
Plebeians into his city. [Lect. II., 3.] Political privileges were first conferred upon 
them rather indirectly by the Servian Constitution. [Lect. IV., 5.] Though no Pleb 
might become a magistrate, wealthy Plebs might vote. But Pleb^ were not allowed 
any public land, hence their chances for wealth were very limited. Even these 
privileges were swept away by Tarquinius Priscus under whom the Plebs were little 
better than slaves. . — 

3. The First Plebeian Magistrates. — The kings, though patricians, were ofllcials 
of the whole people, so that the Plebs are little heard of during the monarchy. With 
the fall of the monarchy, however, we have a new order of things. The Consuls are 
themselves leaders of the Patrician party, receive the honor direct from the Patricians, 
and at the end of a single year become private citizens liable to prosecution by new 
Patrician officers tot any act hostile to their order. [E. g., Sp. Cassius, proposer of the 
first Agrarian law.] [Lee. X., 2.] The Plebs were therefore entirely at the mercy of the 



r 



22 HOME — THE REPUBLIC. 

Patricians whose oppressions soon led to the First Secession of the Plebs. [Lect. VI., 
2.] Upon this laws were passed (1) protecting the Plebs from usurious interest; (2) 
granting tribunes; (3) appointing Plebeian aediles — overseers of markets [Lect. VF. , 
3.] who could protect them from the rapacious patricians. Now for the first time a 
Plebeian could claim in his own name the protection of law. 

4. The Plebs Gain Political Rights.— Soon after obtaining tribunes and aediles 
the Plebs "gained the right to summon before their own comitia tributa any one 
who violated the rights of their order." The Plebiscita — acts of the tributa — did not 
become binding on their own order till after the enactment of the twelve tables 
[when?] By the Canulein rogations, B. C. 445, the Plebs gained the right of inter- 
marriage with Patricians. About the same time Uie attempt to gain consulship was 
frustrated by a law permitting, instead of consuls, six military tribunes with consular 
power who might be either Patrician or Plebeian. At the same time the censorship, a 
patrician ofiBce, was created to receive the most important functions of the consulship. 

5. The Plebs Gain Political Equality. — In 421, by gaining the questorship, 
Plebeians for the first time entered the Senate. Stolo 367 raised the number of keepers 
of -the Sibyline books from two to ten, half of whom must be Plebeians. He restored 
the consulship on condition that one must be a Plebeian. The next year Lucius 
Sextius became the first Plebeian consul. [Livy, VI., 42.] The Patricians retorted by 
creating the Praetorship to which the most important consular dignities were trans- 
ferred. 

351. Censorship gained. 

341. Both consuls might be Plebeians. 

336. Praetorship gained. 

300. Office of Pontifex and Augur gained. 

286. Third secession of the Plebs. Hortensian laws guaranteed the privileges they 
had gained, and made the Plebiscita binding on the whole State. There was no longer 
any political distinction between Patrician and Plebeian. 

LECTURE X. AGRARIAN LAWS. 

1.* The Public Lands. — By his attempt to grant public lands to Plebeians, Servius 
incurred the displeasure of the patricians and was soon assassinated. [Lect. IV., 4.] 
But since public lands came by conquest and Plebeians made up the army, their 
exclusion appeared more and more unjust. They were first allowed to use the public 
pastures for a small sum paid to the State, then poor Plebeians were allowed little 
farms on condition of occupying and defending them. But when the public land — 
enlarged by conquest — had to be offered to any who could occupy, it necessarily fell 
to the rich. These preferred slave to free labor [why?] so that the condition of the 
poor Plebs was pitiable indeed. 

2. Spurius Cassius. — First Agrarian Law. B. C. 486. Spurius Cassius, now consul 
for the third time, proposed to remedy this injustice by giving half of the land just 
conquered from the Hernici to the Latins and half to the Plebs. To>this he proposed 
to add other public lands in possession of private citizens. Such monstrous [?] propo- 
sitions brought the whole Patrician party about his ears. Nothing daunted, he went 
further and proposed to return to the people the money paid for Sicilian corn. [Lect. 
VII., 3.] The Agrarian law passed, but was rendered inoperative by Patricians, who 
the next year tried Cassius and condemned him to death. [Livy, 11., 41-43.] 

3. Stolo's Law. — More than a century later, [367 (?)] Licinius Stolo, a Plebeian, 
ten times elected tribune, succeeded in passing a law which limited the land which 



24 ROME — THE REPUBLIC. 

might be lield by one possessor to five hundred jugera [about 350 acres.] But the 
Plebs were never able to secure justice in the distribution of the ager publicus, though 
from Stolo's time they appear to have shared its enjoyment. Two and a-half centuries 
later the Gracchi lost their lives iu the same fruitless struggle. [Lect. XIX., 4, 5.] 
Livy, VI., 42. 

Section II. CONQUEST OF ITALY. 

LECTURE XI. THE FIRST SAflNITE WAR. 

1. The Seven Hills. — Roma Quadrata was so called from the shape of the Pala- 
tine on which the city of Romulus stood. Gradually the city grew till it occupied 
the seven hills [Aventine, Capitoline, Coelian, Esquiline, Viminal, Palatine, Quirinal — 
forming the acrostic Accevpcq] around which the Servian wall was built. 

2. Early Conquests. — As soon as the Republic recovered from the stagnation 
which followed the expulsion of the kings, war and conquest were resumed. Qj dint 
of hard fighting and obstinate perseverance the borders of Rome were slowly enlarged. 
First, Fidenaefell, [Lect. VIII. , 1.] then that dangerous rival Veil [Lect. VIII., 2.] 
Finally, the ^Equi, Volsci, and other neighboring tribes with which Rome had carried 
on an intermittent war from her very foundation were subdued. The borders of Rome 
now extended southward as far as the Liris. But in a career of conquest there is no 
stopping point; ever new conquests are required to protect the last. 

3. First Samnite War. B. C. 343-341. Invited by the Campanians to aid them 
against the Samnites, Rome accepted. She was thus plunged into a conflict which was 
to last seventy years. In such a hard school was Rome trained to be mistress of the 
world. After the Romans had gained three victories over the Samnites a peace was 
concluded- by which Rome received Padua, the Samnites, Teanum. 

4. Overthrow of- the Latin Confederacy. 340-338. — The Latin towns to the 
south and east of Rome had long waged unsuccessful war against the city on the 
Tiber. But as Rome's hegemony became more firmly established comparative quiet 
prevailed. At last, however, the whole Latin League, with Caupa and the Volscians 
as allies, rose against Rome and demanded political equality. [The demand for admis- 
sion to the consulship and the Senate reminds of the American Revolution and the 
English Parliament.] Roman victory near Vesuvius. Execution of consul's son for 
disobediently gaining a victory. [Story of P. Decuis Mus.] Latins overwhelmed at 
Trifanum. Peace. Latins made citizens without suffrage, i. e., subjects. Antium, 
whose ship beaks [rostra] were taken to adorn the speaker's platform in the Forum, 
[hence Rostrum] was made a colony. 

LECTURE XIL SECOND AND THIRD SAMNITE WARS. AND WAR WITH PYRRHUS-TARENTUM. 

1. Second Samnite \^ar. — Caudine Pass. B. C. 326-304. Both parties being about to 
engage in another war [Tarentum. Latins], the first peace between Rome and the Sam- 
nites was easily arranged. With the Latins subjected, Rome crossed the Liris and 
annexed Fregellae, a Samnite town. This was the beginning of a war in which Rome 
was successful at first, but in 321 the Romans were surrounded at the Caudine Pass, made 
to surrender, swear to a treaty of peace, and give two nobles as hostages. Whole army 

passed under the yoke. [What was this form ? See Livy, IX., 2-6]. 

2. Close of the War. — The Senate refused to ratify the peace, and gave the consuls' 
up to the Samnites, who would not receive them. The Samnites soon driven entirely 
out of Campania. Etruria and many other neighboring tribes now took part against 
Rome and checked her progress. Rome again triumphs. Great victory at Vadimonian 
Lake (310). Nuceria [where ?] falls — attacked by land and sea. First Roman navy (?). 
With the fall of Boviarum (305) came peace. The Via Flaminia and the Via Valeria 
now constructed. 



26 ROME THE REPUBLIC. 

3. Third Samnite War. B. C. 398-390.— The Samnites and their allies were soon 
for the third time at war with Rome. Large armies raised on both sides. Roman 
victory at Sentinura (395). Samnites finally submit (390). With them the Etrus- 
cans, Sabines and others became subject to Rome. 

4. War with Pybrhus-Taeentum. B. C. 282-272. — Roman fleet anchored at Taren- 
tum contrary to an old treaty, was attacked and many crews sold into slavery. Upon 
approach of Roman army Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, called to assist Tarentum. Pyrrhus 
victorious at Heraclea (280) — elephants. "Many such victories will ruin me." The' 
next year at Asculum he suffered a like victory. At Beneventum (275) he was com- 
pletely overthrown and Rome was mistress of Italy. 

Section III.— CONQUEST OF CARTHAGE. 

LECTURE XIII. FIRST PUNIC WAR. B. C. 264. 

1. DiDO Founds Carthage. — Carthage was founded by Tyre a century before the 
foundation of Rome (853). Dido was sister of the Tyrian king. Her husband was 
slain for his great wealth, but Dido, with a company of nobles, escaped with the 
wealth. Touching at Cyprus she seized a number of maidens for wives to her nobles, 
and sailed to the African coast. There she bought as much land as could be covered 
with a bull's hide. Then cutting the hide into the smallest possible strings she 
surrounded a piece of land large enough for a citadel. [See "Dido," Smith's Classical 
Diet.'] There were several Tyrian colonies on this coast before Carthage, but the 
youngest outstripped them all and became the naval power of the west. 

2. Carthage and Rome Compared. — Carthage was a naval power. Rome depended 
upon her land forces for success. Carthage was a loose confederacy, with little but 
force or pay to hold her allies. Rome was a fairly compact State with numerous allies 
bound to her by the strongest ties of sympathy and self-interest. The Carthaginian 
army was composed of mercenaries; that of Rome of her own citizens and subjects. 
Perhaps, on the whole, the two powers were pretty evenly matched. 

3. Causes of the War. — (1) A deep-seated jealousy between the first sea power 
and the first land power of the west. (2) Some Campanian allies of Rome took 
Messana [where?]. Part of the inhabitants appealed to Rome, part to Carthage. The 
Romans hesitated, but at last sent a force only to find the place already occupied by 
Carthaginians. They were at once attacked and dislodged. Carthage declared war. 

4. In Sicily. — A consul was at once sent to Sicily. Messana was relieved, but an 
attempt to take Syracuse failed. The next year two Roman armies in Sicily. Hiero, 
king of Syracuse, went over to the Roman side with his city. Third year Hanno was 
defeated and Agrigentum taken. Carthage nearly driven out of Sicily. 

5. First Naval Victory of the Romans. — Mylae, B. C. 260. The first naval 
attempt of the Romans failed, but having built a large fleet with boarding bridges 
[describe these], they next year attacked and destroyed a Carthaginian fleet at Mylae 
[location?]. Three years later the two navies fought a drawn battle off Tyndaris 
[where?] 

6. Regulus and the Invasion of Africa. B. C. 256-255. — Regulus was one of the 
consuls for 256. Under the consuls a great army was led into Africa, having first 
defeated the Carthaginian fleet at Ecnomus [where ?] Soon after the landing Regulus 
was left to conduct the campaign. He defeated the Carthaginians, who sued for peace ; 
failed. Greek mercenaries obtained. The Spartan Xanthippus led them to victory ; 
Regulus captured ; sent with an embassy to Rome ; persuaded the Senate not to make 
peace; returned; tortured [chest with spikes?] Art. "Regulus," Smith's Classical 
Diet. 



28 ROME THE REPUBLIC. 

7. Roman Gains. — The Roman fleet sent to rescue the African expedition was 
on the return destroyed by a storm. Another fleet took Panormus (254), near which 
three years later the Romans gained an important victory on land. Defeated by sea 
at Drepanum (249), and long held in check by Hamilcar in Sicily, the Romans at last 
destroyed the Carthaginian fleet under Hanno, at the ^gatian Islands [location?^ 241. 

8. Treaty of Peace. B. C. 241.— I. Carthage gave up Sicily. II. Paid 3200 
talents ($4,000,000 in ten years). 

Rome organized her FIRST PROVINCE, Western Sicily. 

LECTURE XIV. SECOND PUNIC WAR.— HANNIBAL. B. C. 218-202. 

1. The Truce. B. C. 240-218. — The brief peace between the first and second Punic 
wars was scarcely taken seriously by either party. Carthage employed the time in 
strengthening her resources both by sea and by land. Spain was to replace Sicily, and 
to this conquest she devoted most of her strength. 

2. Rome — Second Province. — Rome, meanwhile, was everywhere active — settling 
old scores, enlarging her territory. Corsica and Sardinia, formerly dependent upon 
Carthage, invaded on a flimsy pretext and organized- as the second roman province. 

3. The Illyrians and the Gauls. — The Illyrian pirates punished, and the affairs 
of Greece interfered with for the first time. [See "The Eastern Civilizations and 
Greece," Lect. XXV., 5.] Their northern neighbors, the Gauls, whose name, since the 
fateful day of the Allia, had always inspired the Romans with terror, were vanquished 
after a hard struggle. They were routed by Flaminius near Telamon [founded by Tel- 
amon on his return from the Argonautic expedition ?] 

4. Hannibal. B. C. 247-183. — Son of Hamilcar Barcas, he was taken by his father 
to Spain, where, at the age of only nine years, he was solemnly led to the altar and 
made to swear eternal hatred to Rome. To the keeping of that vow, the life of the 
greatest general of antiquity was devoted. At the death of his brother-in law, Has- 
drubal, he was chosen leader of the Carthaginians in Spain (221). Twenty-six years 
old, and leader of the only nation able to cope with the Roman Republic ! The Cartha- 
ginian arms were now rapidly pushed to the Ebro, when Rome protested. 

5. Saguntum, B. C. 219. — Hannibal had just ended two successful campaigns 
against the Spanish savages, and was ready to march*agaiust Saguntum, the last strong- 
hold south of the Ebro. He therefore paid no attention to Rome's embassy — scarcely 
consulted his own government, for although still but twenty-eight years old he was, 
for military purposes, himself the government. Saguntum was besieged, and after a 
desperate resistance taken and destroyed. [Livy, XXI , 7-14.] 

6. "Beyond the Alps Lies Italy." — Hannibal, knowing that Rome was fully 
occupied with their Illyrian and Gaulish neighbors, determined at once upon his 
course. "It would need but his presence in their midst," he argued, "to enlist not only 
the Gauls, but most of the Roman allies in Italy under his banner." But to this the 
Alps interposed the well-nigh insurmountable obstacle of their snowy backs. To a 
genius less than Hannibal's, this would have been conclusive; but 'success smiles at 
impossibilities. - 

LECTURE XV. HANNIBAL IN NORTHERN ITALY. 

[Follow on a good map the movements of Hannibal.] 

1. Passage of the Alps. — [Little St. Bernard Pass?] Starting with a force of 
50,000 infantry, 9,000 cavalry and 37 elephants, Hannibal pushed rapidly north, thread- 
ing his way painfully through the Pyrenees and fighting his way across the Rhone. 
The hostile tribes living east of Rome were easily dispersed, but continued to annoy 
his army by sudden attacks, and by rolling down rocks and trees in the narrow passes. 



30 ^ KOMB — THE BEPUBLIC. 

It was only with the greatest diflSculty and by the most daring deeds that the passage 
[Little St. Bernard], occupying fifteen days, was finally accomplished. But Hannibal 
entered Italy with only 20,000 foot, 6,000 horse and 7 elephants ! [Why had he not 
fought Scipio at the Rhone and taken the easier way by the Mediterranean ?] 

2. The Ticinus. B. C. 218. — Hannibal immediately moved southward along the 
left bank of the Po, Scipio, who having failed to intercept the Carthaginians on the 
Rhone, had turned back to Italy, was at the same time moving to meet Hannibal. 
Scipio, having bridged the Ticinus, was leading his cavalry in person when the two 
generals suddenly faced each other. A brisk skirmish resulted in Hannibal's favor, 
proving here in this first engagement the superiority of the Carthaginian cavalry. 
Scipio retired so precipitately and broke down his bridge so hastily as to leave 600 
men on the other side to become prisoners. Scipio wounded; Gauls join Hannibal. 

3. The Trebia. B. C. 218.— A little farther down the Po the Trebia falls into it 
from the south. Soon after the battle of the Ticinus Hannibal crossed the Po near 
Placentia [see map] and pushed on after Scipio, who had fortified himself across the 
Trebia. While Hannibal paused for negotiations with some traitors, Sempionius 
hurried up from Sicily in forty days and joined Scipio. Sempronius insisted upon a 
battle; was cautioned by the experience of Scipio, attacked a foraging party with some 
success and then marched out to meet Hannibal. Without breakfast he led his shiver- 
ing men through the freezing Trebia against the comfortably-camped and well-fed 
Carthaginians. The result could not be doubtful. Cool calculation won against pre- 
cipitate conceit. The Romans were almost annihilated. 

4. End of the Fiest Italian Campaign. — Things now looked dark for Rome. 
Hannibal's first campaign on Italian soil had won for him the cavalry fight on the 
banks of the Ticinus, the infantry battle on the Trebia, where two consular armies 
were nearly destroyed, brought over to his standard most of the Gauls, and left him 
with a greatly strengthened army in full possession of Cisalpine Gaul. 

5. Preparations for the Next Campaign. — At Rome nothing was left undone 
that could aid the Roman cause. The brave but reckless Flaminius was again made 
consul with Servilius. Each was placed at the head of an army and early in the 
spring of 217, sent north to prevent Hannibal's entrance into Roman Italy. The 
Senate was bent upon the destruction of the invader, and therefore took no notice of 
the illegal conduct of Flaminius in leaving Rome before his term of office should 
have begun. Hannibal too was early in the field, for with him everything depended 
upon celerity. 

LECTURE XVI. THE SECOND CAMPAIGN IN ITALY. 

1. Battle of Lake Trasimene. B. C. 217. — As soon as spring opened Hannibal 
proceeded southward and took up his position on a semi-circular ridge of hills north 
of Lake Trasimene. [location?] Flaminius following him, was led into a trap. On 
a foggy morning his troops were passing through the plain, when, after the vanguard 
had passed the further side, at a signal Hannibal's cavalry attacked them in front 
while the infantry from ambush administered the most crushing defeat the Romans 
had yet suffered. Flaminius slain; severe earthquake not noticed by combatants. 

2. Results of Trasimene. — The Romans lost fifteen thousand men. Of the 
prisoners Hannibal at once released the allies of Rome as a bribe to induce their 
cities to join the Carthaginians. In this appeared Hannibal's hope of conquering 
Rome — he counted on her allies coming to his standard. Rome was in consternation; 
"We have been defeated in a great battle!" An immediate attack was expected. An 
army was hastily collected and the city put into the best possible condition for 
defense. 

3. Hannibal's Next Movements. — But Hannibal instead of marching on Rome 
turned northward toward Spoletium [location]. That city would not join him, so he 



32 ROME — THE REPUBLIC. 

passed on into Picenum to the Adriatic and opened communication by sea with 
Carthage. Having rested through the heat of summer he pushed southward in the 
fall "plundering as he went." Striving to bring on a battle he plundered the rich 
Falernian plains. Hemmed in; cleared a pass by oxen with burning fagots tied to their 
horns. [Lect. VIII., 1.] Went into winter quarters near Cannae. 

4. Roman Impatience. — After Trasimene, a Dictator was demanded. Quintus 
Fabius [Cunctator] appointed. Follows Hannibal at safe distance but refuses to be 
drawn into an engagement. Rome impatient. The next consuls, Varro and ^milius, 
choseii to fight Hannibal, ^milius a good general. Varro too rash. 

5. Battle of Cannae. B. C. 216. — It was only necessary for Hannibal's overthrow 
to continue the policy of Fabius ; but Varro, over confident, insisted upon attacking 
Hannibal. On a day when affairs fell to his direction he decided for battle. The 
Romans, in their careless haste, allowed themselves to be again surrounded by the 
Carthaginians, and their force annihilated. The Roman loss exceeded 40,000. Among 
the slain were ^milius and eighty men of senatorial rank. Cannae was the climax of 
Carthaginian success, of Roman disaster. Capua surrenders to Hannibal, who winters 
there. 

6. Conduct of the Senate. — Now were displayed those qualities which so distin- 
guished the Roman Senate. The gates were shut, only thirty days allowed for mourning? 
and every available recruit brought into the army. Hannibal's ambassadors were not 
even allowed to enter the city. " Rome will never treat with a victorious enemy." 
Hannibal himself rode up to the walls, but did not attack the city. 

LECTURE XVII. FROM CANNAE TO METAURUS. B. C. 216-207. 

1. Rome on the Defensive. — The terrible disaster at Cannae more than vindicated 
the cautious policy of the mild but courageous Fabius, who was now recalled to the 
leadership of the Roman forces — a trust which he discharged with distinction for 
several years. The Senate ordered the survivors of Cannae to Sicily, where they could 
have no chance to wipe off their disgrace, and disfranchised those who had been 
inclined to forsake the republic. Rome's policy was henceforth that of the Cunctator. 
This was merely an open acknowledgment that Rome's infantry was no match for 
Hannibal's. 

2. Hannibal's First Defeat — Nola. B. C. 216. — The war was now confined to 
Southern Italy. The Italians who had gone over to Hanilibal he found it exceedingly 
difficult to protect. With three Roman armies watching him [with a view chiefly to 
keeping out of his way], Hannibal could not relieve the cities friendly to him as 
rapidly as they were attacked by the Romans. At last, in an attack upon Nola, which 
had been occupied by a Roman army under Marcellus, a well-directed sally cut off a 
Carthaginian contingent and forced Hannibal to retire. Winter quarters. On the 
defensive. 

3. Spain.— With Hannibal cooped up in Southern Italy,Rome could spare some forces 
for Spain. Thither the two Scipios were sent. They defeated Hannibal's brother, 
Hasdrubal, and pushed on to the Gaudalquivir, where they defeated the Carthaginians 
in two battles, and continued to maintain themselves there for several years. 

4. Tarentum. B. C. 212.— Soon after Cannae, Hannibal had appeared before Taren- 
tum expecting aid from Philip V. of Macedonia, and also that the city gates would be 
opened to him. He was disappointed in both, and was compelled to retire. Some time 
after this he again moved on Tarentum. Two Greeks, under pretense of hunting, daily 
visited his camp and arranged to admit him to the city on a night when the Roman 
general would surely be engaged in drunken revel. The treachery succeeded, and. 
Tarentum passed into the hands of Hannibal. 



34 ROME THE REPUBLIC. 

5. First Macedonian War B. C. 215-206. Fliilip V., of Macedonia, had promised 
to aid Hannibal against Tarentum, Tlieir letters were intercepted by the Romans and 
a fleet sent to prevent the fulfillment of the promise. As soon as she could spare the 
forces Rome proceeded to punish Philip. Rome formed a league led by the ^tolians 
against Philip. Several years of indecisive war — favorable to Rome — led to a 
reluctant peace. 

6. Syracuse Taken by the Romans. B. C. 212. — The war raged hotter and hotter 
in Sicily. The Romans were besieging Syracuse; the Carthaginians trying to relieve 
it. Marcellus destroyed Hamilcar's army. Brave resistance of Syi'acuse aided by the 
inventive genius of Archimedes. City taken and plundered. 

7. Capua Taken by Rome. B. C. 211. — The next year witnessed the fall of the only 
important Italian city which had early gone over to Hannibal. The Romans besieged 
Capua closely, and Hannibal, in an attempt to relieve the city, was repulsed. His 
march on Rome. Failed. Capua taken; fifty- three citizens beheaded; many sold into 
slavery. 

8. Battle op the Metaurus. B. C. 207. — At length Hasdrubal, meeting with little 
success in Spain, determined to follow Hannibal into Italy and join him there. The 
Romans were greatly alarmed at this news. Twenty-three legions raised. The con- 
suls directed to make every effort to prevent the meeting of the two brothers. Has- 
drubal' s dispatches intercepted. Hannibal's march. Drawn battle in Lucania. The 
consul Nero leaves part of his army to watch Hannibal, and takes the rest by forced 
marches to join his colleague in the north. The junction effected. Hasdrubal's army 
destroye'd and himself killed on the Metaurus, B. C 207. Hasdrubal's bloody head 
thrown to the Carthaginian pickets apprised Hannibal that his hope of success in Italy 
was gone. [Creasy' s Decisive Battles. IV.'] 

9. End of War. — After Metaurus it was a mere question of time with Hannibal. 
Meanwhile Rome pushed the war in Africa. Hannibal was recalled to meet Scipio, 
and at Zama [location], B. C. 202, the Carthaginian army was annihilated. 

10. Peace. — Carthage required to (1) surrender Spain and the islands of the Medi- 
terranean ; (2) transfer kingdom of Syphax to Massinissa ; (3) annual tribute of 200 
talents ($250,000) for fifty years; (4) surrender all warships but ten ; (5) no war to be 
undertaken without consent of Rome. 

Section IV. CONQUEST OF THE EAST. 

LECTURE XVIII. MACEDONIA, ANHOCHUS III., CARTHAGE. 

1. Battle of Cynoscephalae. B C. 197. Scarcely had Rome received the news 
of Zama before she had plunged into new wars. Transpadane, [across the Po] Italy 
was, by hard fighting, again subdued. Then Philip V. was punished for aiding Haimi- 
bal at Zama. His army was routed in the battle of Cynoscephalse; Philip was deposed 
from the hegemony of Greece, and his kingdom made dependent upon Rome. 

2. Antiochus III. OF Syria. — After Zama, Hannibal made his way to the court of 
Antiochus. This and the meddling of Antiochus in Grecian affairs led to war with 
Rome. Antiochus entered Greece and occupied ThermopylsB. Hannibal himself led 
a fleet which was defeated at the Eurymedon. Soon the war was pushed into Asia, 
and at Magnesia (190) Antiochus was defeated and made practically dependent upon 
Rome. Hannibal escaped, but in B. C. 183 took poison to avoid capture. 

3. Battle of Pydna. B. C 168 — Perseus, son of Philip V., plotted revenge upon 
Rome. The Senate, informed of this, at once sent an army into Macedonia. For some 
time the Romans made but little progress; then ^milius Paullus was sent. out; the 



« 



36 ROME — THE REPUBLIC. 

army thoroughly reorganized, and a battle fought at Pydtia, in which the army of 
Perseus was destroyed. Macedonia was dismembered, the rebels cruelly punished, and 
the country subjected — one thousand Greeks carried off to Rome, among whom was 
the historian, Polybius. 

4. Corinth Destroyed. B. C. 146. — About twenty years later a rising of the 
Achean League ("The Eastern Civilizations and Greece," Lect. XXV., 4) led to the 
destruction of its leading city. Some of the exiles (Sec. 3) had been allowed to return, 
and these immediately stirred up a rash revolt, which resulted in the destruction of 
Corinth. ("The Eastern Civilizations and Greece," Lect. XXV., 5). 

5. Destruction or Carthage. B. C. 446. — The Third Punic War was caused by 
Roman jealousy and fear really, but, nominally, because Carthage made war without the 
consent of Rome [Lect. XVII., 10] Massinissa's attacks [prompted by Rome?] Carth- 
age met, first, by appeal to Rome [without result,] then by battle. But Rome's course 
had been determined beforehand by Cato's oft repeated "Delenda est Carthago." So 
rapidly had Carthage recovered after the Second Punic War, that her very existence 
was believed to be a menace to Rome. Carthaginians beseiged; brave resistance; arms 
treacherously taken by the Romans; women cut off their hair for catapult strings; the 
men fashion new arms. City at last taken and burned; conflagration seventeen days, 
and a plow run over the site. 

6. Roman Provinces. — At this time Rome had eight provinces — (1) Sicily, [First 
Punic War;] (2) Sardinia and Corsica, [Invasion contrary to treaty with Carthage;] 
(3) Hither Spain (4) Farther Spain, [Second Punic War;] (5) Cisalpine Gaul, [Subjec- 
tion of the Gauls;] (6) Illyricum, [Battle of Pydna;] (7) Macedonia and Greece, [De- 
struction of Corinth;] (8) Africa, [Destruction of Carthage.] 

7. Government of the Provinces. — The first four provinces had been governed by 
praetors — judges whose duty it was to preside over the courts. After that all six of 
the praetors were kept in the city, and at the termination of their year of office they 
were sent by lot to the provinces as pro-praetors. But warlike provinces were 
governed by pro-consuls — consuls, /. e., after their year office. Hence pro-consular and 
pro-praetorial provinces. No more dictators. " The consuls shall take measures for 
the public good according to their discretion." 

Section V. Tending Towards Empire. 
LECTURE XIX. ROME AND THE TEUTONIC PEOPLES, 

1. NuMANTiA Destroyed. B. C. 133. — The Spanish tribes were ever restless and 
fierce. Roman arms alone kept them in subjection. Variathus, the most dangerous 
Spanish leader, waged incessant war till he was murdered, wlien Numantia became the 
seat of the war. At last Scipio was sent against the city. After a brave resistance of 
fifteen months it yielded and was destroyed. Scipio Nnmanticus. 

2. First Servile War. B C. 135-132. — Conquest had made slaves so plentiful in 
Rome that they were very harshly treated. A slave more or less made little difference 
one way or another. Under a slave, who called himself King Antiochus, the slaves of 
Sicily revolted and were only put down by the help of Roman armies. Eunus, the 
leader, was executed also with a large number of slaves. 

3. Depravity Follows Conquest. — From the close of the Second'Punic War Greek 
learning, philosophy and literature gained rapidly at Rome. All the earliest historians 
of Rome were Greeks — Fabius Pictor, Polybius, Dionysius. Greek revels of the 
Bacchanalia. Luxury. Loss of political honor. Bribery. A few noble families con- 
trol affairs. Corrupt family life. All these things were but a natural consequence of 
Rome's rapid progress in wealth and power with a low moral standard. 



38 ROME — THE BBPUBLIC. 

4. Tiberius Gbacchus. B. C. 133. — Increase of great plantations [Latifundia] 
worked hy slaves led to loud complaints from the small farmers who were crushed 
out. Gracchus, a plebeian, as tribune proposed a revival of the Licinian law restrict- 
ing land holdings to 500 jugera [Lect. X., 3], except he would allow 250 jugera extra 
to each son. Law adopted. Gracchus next proposed to popular assembly, instead of 
the Senate, the division of the spoil of Pergamus. Upon an unconstitutional attempt 
to obtain the tribunate again he was murdered by a mob. 

5. Caius Gracchus. B. C. 123. — The younger brother of Tiberius, and greatly his 
superior. Elected to the tribunate against the will of the Senate. At once he set 
about reforms which looked to the complete overthrow of existing conditions. [Did 
Gracchus expect to become sole Ruler of Rome — i. e., the head of the nominal democ- 
racy?] Re-elected tribune next year, he took away the privilege of jury duty from the 
senators and gave it to the order next below senatorial rank. Many public questions — 
colonization — he refused to submit to the Senate. Not elected the third time; civil 
strife brought on a conflict between his followers and the optimates. Gracchus and 
three thousand of his followers slain. 

6. War with Jugurtha. B. C. 111-105. — Adopted by a son of Massinissa. Got 
possession of the kingdom by bribing the Romans sent to divide it. Bribed a consul 
to obtain peace. Not ratified. Jugurtha invited to Rome on promise of safe conduct. 
Made partisans by buying men of influence. But when he allowed [instigated?] the 
murder in Rome itself of the last possible rival to his throne he was sent away and 
war renewed. Romans suffered a humiliating defeat — sent under the yoke. Marius 
sent out. Gained several victories and finally conquered Jugurtha himself who starved 
in a Roman prison. Peace. 

7. First Invasion of the Teutonic People. B. C. 102. — For about ten years the 
Cimbri and Teutones had been fighting, and often defeating, the Roman armies in 
Gaul and Spain. At last these two nations of barbarians agreed to enter Italy in two 
bands. Marius again elected consul and continued in the office five years. The 
Teutones were met by Marius at Aquae Sextae and their army annihilated. Then 
hurrying accross the Alps, he, with his colleague, met and annihilated the Cimbri at 
Vercellae. "The Teutons have all the land they need on the other side of the Alps." 
Important changes in the constitution of the army. 

LECTURE XX. WARS, FOREIGN AND CIVIL. 

1. The Social Wae. B. C. 90-88. — A second rising of slaves in Sicily was put 
down by Marius after four years of hard fighting. Marius now became haughty and 
unpopular at Rome. In his absence the tribune Drusus brought forward three laws: 
(1) Reform of judicial department; (2) New division of lands; (3) Conferring of citizenship 
on the Italians. Drusus assassinated. The Italians — most of Italy, except Rome 
itself — make war. The Marsians in the north defeated by Marius, but elsewhere the 
Romans were less successful and other tribes were about to revolt. Citizenship 
granted to the Latins who had remained faithful. Rome finally victorious. Citizen- 
ship granted to all Latins who applied for it. 

2. MiTHRiDATES. B. C. 88-84. — An Eastern Monarch. Kingdom of the Bosphorus 
around the Black Sea. Sulla, proconsul of Cilicia, had fought against him. War 
declared. Mithridates defeats the king of Bythinia. Joined by Greek cities of Asia- 
Minor which in one day put to death all their Latin inhabitants. Mithridates defeated 
by Sulla at Chaeronea in 86, at Orchomenus in 86. The next year Sulla marched 
through Thrace into Asia-Minor and forced Mithridates to conclude a humiliating 
peace. 

3. The Civil War. — Marius and Sulla, B. C. 88-82. Meanwhile the democratic 
party had tried to deprive Sulla of power and appoint Marius in his place. _ Sulla 



40 ROME THE REPUBLIC. 

marched upon Rome, took the city by storm, and slew the democratic leaders, except 
Marius, who escaped to Africa. Sulla returns to the Mithridatic war. Marius in his 
turn takes Rome and slaughters all optimates who had not fled. Marius consul seventh 
time. His death, B. C. 86. 

4. Sulla's Proscriptions. — Upon Sulla's return to Italy in 83 he landed in 
Brundisium with a large army and began the o\^erthrow of the Marian party now led 
by young Marius and Carbo. After several hard battles and dreadful punishments 
inflicted upon conquered cities by Sulla, young Marius ordered himself killed by his 
slaves. Sulla then entered Rome and had himself appointed Dictator for an unlimited 
time. Reign of terror. Lists of the doomed posted — in all four thousand seven 
hundred — [lex de proscribendis malis civibus.] In 79 Sulla resigned the Dictatorship 
and the next year died. 

6. Third Servile War. — Grladiators, B. C. 73-71. Gladiators escaped from training 
school at Capua, took refuge in the crator of Vesuvius, and from there, under the com- 
mand of Spartacus, plundered the neigboring lands. Reinforced by slaves, they 
became an army and threatened Rome. Finally defeated by Crossus and their remnants 
annihilated by Pompey. 

6. Pompey. — The Pirates Suppressed, B. C. 67. Rome's neglect of her fleet led to 
a rapid increase of piracy in the Mediterranean. With headquarters at Crete and 
Cilicia the pirates controlled the whole sea and became very troublesome, capturing 
merchant ships at will. For ten years a desultory and ineffectual war had been waged 
against them, but in 67 B. C, Pompey was given unlimited command for three years 
over the Mediterranean and its coasts fifty miles inland. Two short campaigns were 
enough. Great numbers of ships were captured, the pirates slain or colonized inland, 
and their strongholds destroyed. 

7. Overthrow of Mithridates. B. C. 74-64. — Mithri dates had never ceased to give 
trouble in Asia Minor in spite of the peace. Now he marched into Bythinia and 
declared war. The Romans fought several battles [Tigranocerta] with him. Then 
Pompey was given command in Asia with unlimited powers. Won night battle on the 
Lycos. Flight of Mithridates. Asia Minor organized as a province. Mithridates, in 
the midst of elaborate preparations for an invasion of Rome, hears of the revolt of 
his son, Pharnaces, and slays himself. 

8. Catiline's Conspiracy. B, C. 66-62. — Democrats, led by Crassus and Julius 
Csesar, unite with the worst element in Rome to overthrow the optimates before the 
return of Pompey, whose unlimited power they dreaded. The first conspiracy was to 
murder the consuls, make Crassus dictator and Csssar his master of horse. Failed. 
Next plot, to make Catiline consul, backed by Caesar and Crassns. Succeeded, but 
with Cicero for colleague. Catiline's plot to burn the city failed His plot to murder 
his competitors and Cicero revealed by spies and denounced by Cicero in the Senate. 
Orations against Catiline. Conspirators strangled without trial. Catiline fell in battle. 
Cicero's Orations against Qatiline ; Plutarch's Cicero. 

Section VI.— THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY. 

LECTURE XXI. THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE. 

1. Julius C^sar. — Of patrician birth himself, Cassar espoused the cause of the 
commons. He married the daughter of Cinna ; escaped Sulla's proscriptions, though 
he had to leave Rome ; was thought to be privy to Catiline's plot ; spoke in Senate 
against the execution of the plotters, but all the time increased in popular favor. 
Elected aedile in 65, he went deeply in debt for shows and public entertainments. In 
6:i, while he was praetor, Crassus paid off part of his debts and procured for him the 
pro-praetorship of Spain. In this oflSce he both paid his heavy obligations and won 
military glory. Plutarch's Julius OcBsar. 



42 ROME — THE REPUBLIC. 

2. Ceassus. — The wealthiest man of Eome (?) He had been consul in B. C. 70. 
United with Csesar and Pompey, B. C. 60, to form the first triumvirate. In B. C. 57 
was made pro-consul of Syria, one of the richest of the provinces. Killed four years 
later in an expedition against the Parthians. [Molten gold poured down his throat ?J 

3. Pompey. — The third member of the triumvirate and Caesar's son-in-law. He 
first attracted public notice in his campaign with Sulla against the Marians. [Lect. 
XIX., 4]. At the age of twenty-five he returned from successful wars in Sicily and 
Africa, for which he received the title " Great." He also fought successfully in Spain; 
cut off the remnant of the gladiators ; crushed the pirates in the Mediterranean ; was 
consul with Crassus in 70, and after Sulla's death was the most powerful man in Rome. 

4. The Triumvirate Formed. I^. C. 60. — The events described had brought Cassar, 
Pompey and Crassus into rather intimate relations. But neither was willing to yield 
to the other in the matter of supremacy. When, therefore, the Senate refused to 
divide certain public lands among Pompey's men he proceeded to form with Caesar and 
Crassus an alliance which should virtually control the affairs of Eome. The next year 

_they procured the consulship for Csesar and practically forced the Senate to make him 
the almost independent governor of both the Gauls and lUyricum. 

5. Cjesar in Gaul. B. C. 58-51. — The next few years discovered in Csesar perhaps 
the greatest, certainly the most successful, general the world had yet seen. He sub- 
jected all Gaul [and France bears to-day the marks of that subjection — in church and 
language] to the Roman yoke. He twice invaded Britain in 55 and 54 and pushed far 
into the German forests across the Ehine. In all these years of warfare with savages 
he, perhaps, never lost a battle. [Csesar's Commentaries.] 

6. Results of the Conquest of Gaul. — (1) "Celtic nation destroyed — completely 
Romanized. (2) Establishment of a barrier, which for four hundred years protected 
Rome against the barbarians. (B) Enlarged the boundaries of the old world by adding 
the territory of Gaul and some knowledge of Britain and Germany. (4) Furnished the 
means for the necessary change from republic to monarchy." 

The Battle of Pharsalus. B. C. 48. — The death of Crassus in Mesopotamia in 53 
destroyed the balance in the triumvirate. About the same time Caesar's daughter, 
Julia, Pompey's wife, died. Caeser and Pompey rapidly became estranged, and in 49 
Caesar determined upon war. The Rubicon [where?] Spain overrun, and Pompey's 
army driven from Italy. Caesar followed across Epirus into Thessaly. At Pharsalus, 
B. C, 48, Pompey's army was annihilated — 20,000 made prisoners — Caesar's army num- 
bered only 22,000. Csesar was supreme; he had all but the title of king. Strong 
opposition; continual war. 

LECTURE XXII. LATER WARS AND DEATH OF C/ESAR. 

1. C^sar Supreme. — After the disaster at Pharsalus Pompey fled to Egypt, where 
he was murdered. This left Csesar without a rival. At Rome he was made consul for 
five years, tribune for life and dictator for one year. 

2. The Alexandrine War. B.C. 48-47. — Caesar followed Pompey to Egypt, where 
he found Cleopatra and her brother contending against each other. Csesar readily 
decided in favor of Cleopatra. Upon this the people of Alexandria rose and besieged 
him in his palace, afterwards in Pharos, with greatly superior force. Once had to swim 
for life from a sinking boat. At last reinforced, easily beat the Egyptians in the open 
field. 

3. Pharnaces Defeated. B. C. 47. — Son of Mithridates. King of Pontus, Asia 
Minor, and other districts. Leaving Egypt under a Roman garrison, Caesar went to 
Asia Minor, defeated Pharnaces at Zela, reorganized Asia, and then set out for Rome. 
Pharnaces was killed in a battle with a revolted governor. 



44 ROME THE KEPUBLIC. 

4. A.FRICAN War. B, C. 47-46. — Caesar next undertook war against young Poinpey, 
Scipio, Cato and other Pompeians who had taken post with King Juba, in Africa; 
Caesars rash landing. After small battles, Caesar was completely victorious in the 
battle of Thapsus. In all, 50,000 of the enemy were put to death. Scipio and Cato 
committed suicide; Juba had himself killed by his slaves. Caesar, upon his return to 
Rome, celebrated four triumphs, for Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces and Africa. 

5. Fall of Pompey's Sons. B. C. 46-45. — Young Pompey escaped from Africa and 
joined his brother in Spain. Caesar was at first repulsed by the brothers, but after- 
wards they were overthrown and one was slain in the battle of Munda [location?] 
Caesar had now literally conquered the world. 

6. Cesar's Powers. B. C. 46 — Upon his return to Rome Caesar forced the Senate 
to appoint him consul, dictator and censor for life. "He was possessed of the imperium 
which gave him full control of the finances and military affairs of the State. As 
censor he could enlarge the Senate; asPontifex Maximus he controlled religious affairs; 
as [practically] tribune he had the initiative in legislation and was the sacred protector 
of the people. The Senate was increased to 900 members, but lost all real power." 
The government was still administered under the old forms, but Caesar held all the 
offices! 

7. Cjesar Assassinated. B. C. 44,Mch. 15. — The opposition finally developed a plot 
against Caesar's life. On the 15th of March it chanced that the Senate was to meet in 
the theatre of Pompey. As Caesar entered he was met by a group apparently wishing 
to present petitions, but just as he came opposite the statue of Pompey he was slain. 
[The spirit of the times is very well reflected in Shakespeare's Julius CcBsar.'] 

LECTURE XXIII. THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE. 

1. Mark Antony. — Caesar's nephew, son of his Sister Julia. Early lost his father. 
Step-father put to death by Cicero, as one of Catiline's conspirators. Dissolute. 
Fought in Syria and in Egypt in 55. In the civil war he was a strong partisan of 
Caesar; fought at Pharsalus; was consul with Caesar in 44 when he offered his uncle the 
kingly crown at a festival. At Caesar's death held his money and papers and tried in 
vain to succeed him. Plutarch's Mark Antony. 

2. Lepidus. — Praetor when the war between Caesar and Pompey broke out. Joined 
Caesar's party. Consul fled, leaving him highest magistrate in Italy. Consul with 
Caesar in 46. At Caesar's death he was near the city with an army collected for service 
in Spain and Gaul. Aided Antony in conflict witli Senate. Later when Antony fled to 
him in Gaul he was declared a public enemy by the senate, and both straightway 
marched with a strong army into Italy, where they were joined by Octavius, and the 
Second Triumvirate was formed. 

3. Octavius, Afterwards Augustus. Grandson of Caesar's Sister Julia. Caesar's 
grand-nepiiew — early lost his father. When four years old adopted by Caesar. Edu- 
cated by his grandmother, Julia, and carefully watched by his great-uncle. Early sent 
by him to the camp at Appolonia [location ?] to learn military affairs. At Caesar's 
death he set out for Italy, where he learned of Caesar's wish that he should succeed him. 
Opposed by Antony. Compelled senate to make him consul. Marched north profess- 
edly against Antony, with whom he became reconciled, and the Third Triumvirate was 
formed. Ratified by people for five years. 

4. Battle of Philippi. B. C. 42. — The Triumvirs celebrated their assumption of 
power by putting to death over 2,000 of the opposite party, among them Cicero. [How 
had he offended Antony ?] They then made war upon the republican party, whose 
leaders made a stand at Philippi [location?] Here the Triumvirs were victorious in 
two battles. The republican leaders, Cassius and Brutus, committed suicide. Antony 
ravaged Asia, and then followed Cleopatra, who met him at Tarsus [where ?], to Egypt. 
Octavius, in Italy, distributing land to the veterans. 



4ft ROME — THE EMPIRE. 

6. Pebusine War. B. C. 41-40. — Antony's wife, Fulvia, was ambitious, and, not 
liaving been permitted to go witb her husband, she determined to check the power of 
Octavianus in Italy. She and a brother of Antony's raised their standard atPraeneste. 
Obliged to retire, they took refuge in Perusia, where the next year they surrendered, on 
condition that the leaders should be spared. Death of Fulvia. Antony marries sister 
of Octavius. The world was then parcelled out — Antony the East; Octavius the west; 
Lepidus, Africa. Antony with Cleopatra. 

6. The Sicilian War. B. C. 38-36. — Pompey's son, who had established a maritime 
power in Sicily, now cut off Rome's supply of corn, and war resulted. Octavius lost 
several fleets in vain, but then he gave Agrippa full power to conduct the war. With 
great resolution Agrippa made a harbor [how ?], created a fleet, and conquered Pompey. 
Meanwhile Antony and Octavius liad patched up a new difficulty ; the Triumvirate 
received an extension of five years, 

7. Battle of Actium. B. C. 36. — But matters soon came to a crisis. Antony gave 
Roman land to Cleopatra, and sent his wife [sister of Octavius] papers of divorce. 
Octavius declared war against Cleopatra The movement of Antony and Cleopatra to 
Greece. Actium [where?] Met by the fleet of Octavius under Agrippa. Fierce battle. 
Before it was decided Cleopatra fled ; Antony followed. The Roman Republic no longer 
existed, even in name. Octavius given tlie title AUGUSTUS. [Cf. Pharaoh, Caliph, 
Sultan, Czar]. See for the spirit of the times Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra. 



PART III— The Empire. [Outline Hints.] 



LECTURE XXIV. 

1. The Republic Converted into an Empire. B. C. 31. — From the time of Julius 
Caesar Rome had been an Empire in all but name. Soon after Actium the Imperial 
dignities were granted to Octavius, though even then the senate would not go further 
than Augustus [i. e., "illustrious," "sublime" — Cf. "Sublime Porte,"] in the matter 
of a title. He enjoyed the powers for the acquisition of which Caesar had been slain; 
reduced the senate to 600. Standing body-guard the Praetorian Cohorts — beginning of 
the direct influence of the army. Golden age in literature — Vix'gil, Horace, Ovid, 
Catullus, and many others. 

2. Reign op Augustus [Second C^sar]. B. C. 31 — 14 A.D. — Almost the first act of 
Augustus was to make a tour of the East. Friends rewarded, enemies punished. He 
conducted expeditions against the Parthians, others in Spavin, and numerous campaigns 
against the Germans, who were becoming troublesome. Franchise extended over 
Italy. Census and compilation of his ''Breviarium." Defeat of Varus in the Teuto- 
burg forest by Arminius, 9 A.D. Wise Ruler. Empire prosperous. Augustus adopted 
his stepson. 

3. Tiberius [Third C^sar]. A.D. 14-37. — Succeeded Octavius without opposition. 
Revolts in the army; armies of the Rhine under Germanicus, nephew of Tiberius, 
hardly kept loyal. Election of magistrates taken from popular assemblies and given 
to senate. Tiberius put to death the last rival for his throne, and later Germanicus, (?) 
because of his influence with the army. Sejanus, the real ruler. Poisoned Tiberius' 
son, Drusus. Tiberius retires to Caprae, and the monster Sejanus revels in tyranny 
and blood. Unites the Praetorians around Rome, the foundation of their future 
power. Selfish tyrant. 

4. Caligula [Boots] 37-41, and Claudius 41-54. — (1) Son of the Germanicus, who 
was slain by Tiberius, dubbed ''caligula" by the soldiers from his peculiar foot-gear. 



48 ROME — THE EMPIRE. 

Cruel, half-crazy monster. Murdered. (2) Succeeded by his uncle, Claudius. Weak; 
ruled by favorites. Put his wife to death; ruled by second wife, Agrippina, daughter 
of Germanicus, who persuaded him to adopt her son Nero instead of his first wife's 
son. When Claudius repented she poisoned him. Conquest of Britain — made a 
province. 

5. Nero — Last of the C^sars. 54-68. — Educated by Seneca. If it were possible 
to paint such a character too black, perhaps Nero has suffered that treatment. If Nero 
was all that was bad it must be remembered that he was the product of his times. 
With a father of such flimsy stuff as Claudius, a mother of such calculating blood- 
thirstiness as Agrippina, and a people from whom the sense of honor and self-respect 
had departed, what is the very begt that could be demanded of Nero? He poisoned his 
step-brother; had his mother put to death; drove his wife from him and lived with his 
freedwoman, Acte; married Poppaea, and in a passion gave her a kick, from which she 
died; had a death sentence for any who opposed his whim; drove a chariot in the 
games; acted and sang on the stage; burnt Rome (?) to make room for his proposed 
palace; charged the crime to the Jews and Chri^tians — the same to the Romans — and 
began the First Persecution of the Christian, in which Paul certainly, Peter perhaps, 
lost his life. 

6. The Flavian Emperors. — These inhuman orgies were finally stopped by a 
revolt in Gaul [Nero fled and killed himself] led by Galba, who was proclaimed 
Emperor. Soldiers murdered him after seven months and proclaimed Otlio. Vitellius 
proclaimed by another section of the army. Then the legions in Syria proclaimed 
their leader, Vespasian (69-79), who, by his own address, became a real emperor. 
Revolt of the Jews put down by his son Titus. Jerusalem destroyed 70 A. D. Vespa- 
sian was succeeded by his two sons; first Titus 79-81, then Domitian 81-96. Agricola 
in Britain. Recalled. Poisoned (?). Domitian was a cruel tyrant. Second persecu- 
tion of Christians. 

7. Age of the Antojsines. — Domitian was murdered. Succeeded byNerva 96-98, 
whom the murderers proclaimed. Adopted Trajan who succeeded him (98-117). 
Widest extent of the empire. Wars with Parthians and Dacians. Column of Trajan. 
Adopted Hadrian (117-138). Progress through all the empire. Peace. Abandoned 
the most distant provinces in Asia. Succeeded by Antonius Pius (138-161), and he by 
Marcus Aurelius (161-180). Border wars. Wrote his "Meditations" at intervals in his 
tent on the German frontier. 

LECTURE XXV. FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 476 A. D. 

1. From the Antonin^es to Diocletian. (180-284). — M. Aurelius was succeeded by 
his profligate son Commodus (180-192). Paid tribute to the Germans, gave the govern- 
ment to the Praetorians, was murdered; succeeded by Pertinax, Julian and Septimus 
Severus in one year.- Severus reigned eighteen years, died in Britain, and was suc- 
ceeded by Caracalla (211-217). Citizenship conferred on all the provinces so that 
higher tax might be extorted. Murdered. The next seventy years a period of anarchy. 
Reins of government held by one man only so long as he could keep out of the reach 
of a stronger competitor. 

2. Diocletian. (284-305). — Proclaimed by the soldiers. Empire divided into (1) 
East, with a capital at Nicomedia [where?] ruled by Diocletian; and (2) West, capital 
chiefly at Milan, ruled by co-Augustus, Maximian. Each Augustus was to be assisted 
by a Csesar. General persecution of Christians: Resigned and compelled Maximian to 
do the same. General disorganization. Constantine, in Britain, succeeded to power. 

3. Constantine. (306-337.) — Called the Great. Long struggle with rivals for the 
throne. Sole ruler in 323. Almost his first act as sole ruler was to issue an edict 
making Christianity practically the State religion. Called the church council of 



L 



50 ROME — THE EMPIRE. 

Nicaea. First Ecumenical Council. Nicene creed. Arianism declared heresy. [Find 

all about Arianism.] Divided the Empire finally and made Byzantium (afterwards 

Constantinople) the capital. From this time dates the rapid increase in power of the 
Roman Bishop — [Popes?] 

4. Invasion of Teutonic Tribes. 375 A. D. — From Constan tine's time there was a 
nominal emporor in the West and another in the East. Disorder prevailed every- 
where. At last the West Goths [consult map] pushed across the Danube into the 
Eastern Empire. Battle of Adrianople (378). The nominal emperor then made a bar- 
barian, Theodosius (379), co-regent — real ruler. 

5. Fall of the Western Empire. 476 A. 1). — Things came rapidly to a crisis at 
Rome. The soldiers had for years been the real rulers, though they preferred to be so 
through a nominal emporor. But in 476 the throne fell to a useless boy, Odovaker. 
A barbarian deposed him and sent the insignia of office to Zeno, Emperor at Constan- 
tinople. In return he was made Patrician of Rome. Under this title he continued to 
govern the Western Empire for the Emperor at Constantinople. Note how small a 
change in the real condition — only that of name. Rome's life was perpetuated and 
transmitted in (1) Language; (2) Church; (3) Law, 



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